Effect of Video mediated Instruction on Students’ Achievement, Attitudes and Motivation in Learning Kiswahili Proverbs in Kenya: A Literature Review

The importance of proverbs in enhancing the students’ mastery of a language is well documented.Over time, video-mediated-instructions have boosted students’ academic achievement and attitudes when compared with other methods. In Kenya, there is poor achievement by students in Kiswahili proverbs at the KCSE examinations due to the negative attitude towards proverbs instruction that are not motivating. In this paper, the authors review the literature on video-mediated-instructions drawn since 1990. The authors also review literature on how video-mediated-instructions affect students’ achievement, attitudes and motivation in learning. The author also discusses how Kiswahili proverbs are taught in Kenya. Although video-mediated-instructions affect students’ achievement, attitude and motivation, no studies capture its effect on Kiswahili proverbs teaching. Therefore, this review identifies a gap for future research to find out if the future of teaching Kiswahili proverbs in Kenya lies in video-mediated-instructions.


Introduction
The importance of proverbs in enhancing the students' mastery of a language is well documented.Proverbs are defined by Mieder (2004) as short, sentences of the folk which contain wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorisable form and which are handed down from generation to generation.Proverbs form an integral part of any language and therefore the need to integrate them in its learning (France, 2001).Proverbs cut across the four learning skills; writing, reading, speaking and listening.Proverbs are taught both in language and in oral literature in an integrated manner (KIE, 2002).Proverbs occupy a central place in Kiswahili language and are a product of a cultural context.In the KNEC Kiswahili examination Paper 1, Question 3 has been on proverbs (KNEC, 2011) contributing above 10% of Kiswahili examination (KNEC 2010).Students need to be taught Kiswahili proverbs to pass national examination and for better daily communicationin and out of schoolbecause language use becomes complete when the user is able to communicate through proverbs and sayings (Mohammed 2001cited in Turuthi, 2014).
Proverbs provide suitable illustrations for enlightening our understanding of a given situation (Mieder, 2008).They are devices for installing wisdom (Abdulai, 2000).Proverbs, as an integral part of African culture passed on for centuries; are in wide use today and are very much part of everyday speech.Proverbs are used to illustrate ideas, reinforce arguments and deliver messages of inspiration, consolation, celebration and advice.Chinua Achebe once wrote that proverbs are the palm oil with which words are eaten (Achebe, 1994).Proverbs are a useful tool that helps students communicate better in Kiswahili and in languages in general.In Kenya, there is poor achievement by students in Kiswahili.The KNEC (2013) report indicates that Kiswahili has been ranked lower than the other examinable languages.Kabaji (2005) equates poor performance in languages to the use of teacher centered methods of teaching.For example, whenever teachers teach some Kiswahili proverbs, they mostly explain the meaning of the proverb by elucidating each of the words making up the proverb, without paying special attention to the cultural context that usually help to arrive at the hidden and intended meaning (Turuthi, 2014).
Over time, video-mediated-instructions have boosted students' academic achievement and attitudes when compared with other methods.In this paper, the authors review the literature on video-mediated-instructions drawn since 1990.The review will focus on: methods of teaching; the concept of instructional technology; the concept of video mediated instructions; effect of VMIs on students' motivation to learn, effect of VMIs on student attitude towards learning; effects of VMIs on students' achievement and finally, influence of gender of students on the use of VMI in learning.

Methods of Teaching
There are a variety of models and methods used in teaching and learning (Thomas & Thomas, 2012).The traditional face-to-face model utilizes teaching methods like question and answer, explanation, discussion and fieldwork (Fleck, 2011).
Question and answer method creates teacher-learner-content engagement to enhance understanding (Turuthi, 2014).This is because the teacher allows the learner to interact with the content and with one another by allowing questions to go from learner to teacher, learner to learner and teacher to learner (Turuthi, 2014).Turuthi explains that question and answer help the teacher discover students' knowledge beyond recall and comprehension.This is because question and answer promotes students' deeper thinking beyond yes and no or remembering facts.Turuthi (2014) recommended that question and answer should be used not as an avenue to demonstrate knowledge but one to gain knowledge.
Explanation method is a procedure of delivering knowledge through words following a plan (Wachanga, 2002).Wachanga says that teachers believe that learners are unable to learn without explanation and therefore favour it over other methods.Explanation is either given by the teacher or by the learners.Explanation given by learners helps the teacher gain considerable insight into the learners thinking or their grasp of a problem or of the material taught in class (Hativa, 2000).Hativa further is of the view that learners' explanation leads to higher problem solving performance and therefore fosters learning outcomes.Explanation answers how and why questions, accounts for the occurrence of things, describes, interprets and gives reasons.Limitations of explanation are that it encourages retention of facts as an end in themselves and is inadequate for teaching certain concepts (Wachanga, 2002).He suggests that it should be blended with other methods.
On the other hand are technology-enabled models of teaching and learning that include face-to-face with little technology on board (Fleck, 2007).Fleck explains that the second approach is a mix of advanced technology and traditional methods and the last is a model connecting blended learning and learning communities.In the next sub-section is a discussion on instructional technology as a 21 st century skill.

The Concept of Instructional Technology
In pursuit of enhancing learning, teachers for decades have used items, equipment and written materials.Studying about these items, equipment and written materials and their effectiveness is summarized as instructional media or technology (Smith, 2004).Instructional technology (media and materials) is age-old (Saettler, 1990).Saettler further explains that the items, equipment and written materials we use to teach nowadays are a product of universally accepted educational research.Post World War I period gave birth to audiovisual instructions; photographs and motion pictures (Strathmore University, 2009).The Second World War brought with it the need for mass training of soldiers and therefore the emergence of training films (SU, 2009).This was followed by the advancement of radio and television as educational technology (SU, 2009).Ever since, educational technology has been central in the teaching and learning process: microcomputers and personal computers of the 1980s to more complicated instructional technology (SU, 2009).Technology offers flexibility and adaptability reflective of pedagogies across various learning models.Technology as a tool in learning has been embraced by digital natives who are able to traverse the virtual world ahead of their teachers (Wamari, 2014).It is no doubt that technological tools supply large amounts of information allowing teachers and learners new ways of exploring education compared to ordinary instructional tools (Desai, Hart, & Richards, 2008).Wamari (2014) argues that if technology is changing our ways of life everywhere, then it should change the way we teach.It is, therefore, prudent for the 21 st Century teacher to be familiar with and to integrate technology in teaching and learning.Teachers have a duty to identify emerging technologies and use them innovatively in an array of learning environments.Although technology was initially intended to serve as a means of improving efficiency in the educational process, it has been shown that the use of technology in education can help increase motivation, improve memory retention and deepen understanding (Wheeler, 2000).

The concept of video mediated instructions
In modern times, Video-mediated-instruction (VMI) are deliverers of knowledge, skills and attitudes through auditory and ocular medium (Centre For Educational Research and Innovation, 2007).CERI explains that VMI satisfies learners raising their zeal to gain knowledge.Video-based-instruction usually kindles the brain of the learners due to their use of moving images (CERI, 2007).VMI brings near reality to class by presenting actual situations that are not commonly available in class thereby motivating learners (Graham & Berry, 1992).They improve teaching strategies, captivate audiences and create maximum impact (Trucano, 2013).VMI act as a model and a prompt of best practices (Boler & Allen, 2002) thereby lessening the difficult of teaching into a manageable story situated in a specific context facilitating teacher reflection and action (Abell & Cennamo, 2003).Videos are enhancers of the teacher's understanding of the classroom happenings at the same time developing positive attitudes in students (Simonson & Maushak, 1996).Their continued view is that VMI persuade learners towards learning and contribute to a positive outcome in learning.They explain that videos challenge learners' misconceptions due to their ability to use simple situations.This includes VMI ability to positively affect achievement by being interesting thereby influencing learner behaviour.In addition, VMI affect attitude by exposing learners to new methods of instruction in order to influence their behaviour towards learning.VMI provide motivation and development of positive attitudes in students (Simonson & Maushak, 1996).Videos, as Graham and Berry (1992) argue, are capable of bringing realism to class by presenting instances of concrete situations that are uncommon in class thus motivating learners.These feelings are echoed by Meisel (1998), who says that actual experiences of learning exhibit real-life connections by associating concepts learnt with real life events.
Video technology when used in teacher training leads to improved conceptual understanding of pedagogical issues (Brady, 1997).Similar views are held by (Laurillard, 1995) who say that video technology in the classroom motivates and encourages students to become problem-solvers.These video technologiesif interactiveare useful in the development of technology-related skills in students; a crucial factor in the 21 st century knowledge-based global economy (Wamari, 2014).Video technology, as an instructional tool, has increased in schools over the past five years (Bates, 1995) with teachers and students that have embraced it feeling adequately supported in their teaching and learning respectively (Harris, Mishra, & Koehler, 2009).Video technology enables the learner to access knowledge through multiple processes that include audio, visual and kinaesthetic processes (Mayer, 2005).These are multiple receptors that take care of students diversity and multiplicity of intelligences (Unicef, 2000).This is so because students with different intelligence strengths need various learning styles -that actively involve them in the learning processto cater for individual differences among students.
Video mediated instruction is a development that arose due to the need for quality education that calls for quality processes which include competent teachers using active pedagogies (Darling-Hammond, 1997;Zeegers & Barron, 2012).Graham and Berry (1992) agree that videos are able to bring realism to class by showing examples of actual situations that are not normally available in class thereby motivating learners.World-over, videos have been used: to help students develop a methodology to resolve issues (Ziegenfuss 1996); as a teaching resource to improve teaching strategies (Barford and Weston, 1997) and to captivate audiences and create maximum impact (Meisel, 1998).
Since the turn of the 21 st century, there has been much development, widespread interest and use of video technology in teacher education (Brophy, 2003;Hiebert and Stigler, 2000) making the teachers change and improve the way they teach while retaining the core of traditional practice.Video-Mediated-Instructions have been used: by sociologists to teach about the family, marriage and gender issues (King, 2000); to assist learners recognize and contest dominant culture's presumed right to represent the world (Boler and Allen, 2002); as models of play-skills (D'Ateno, Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003); as models of toy-play skills (Hine & Wolery, 2006); as models to teach generative spelling (Kinney, Vedora, & Stromer, 2003); as medical students' models of doctor-patient interaction (Lee, Jacobs & Kamin ,2006) and as models of generative socio-dramatic play activities (Dauphin, Kinney, Stromer, & Koegel, 2004;Yanardag, Nurgul, & Ilker, 2013).In another study, Van Laarhoven, Kraus, Karpman, Nizzi, and Valentino (2010) compared the effectiveness of video prompting and picture prompting when used as a background for teaching daily living skills.Video-modelling was used to train using an iPod for self-monitoring (Blood, Johnson, Ridenour, Simmons, & Crouch, 2011).
Video has been employed in support of teacher PD programs from far off places through the web (Fishman, 2003).Le Fevre (2003) reports of improved eagerness for using videos in teacher PD, mainly video-based resources with suggestions that videos of teachers' activities in classrooms be used as tools for teacher learning, models of best practices (Abell & Cennamo, 2003) and feedback sessions (Whyte, 2011).Tripp and Rich (2012) argue that video is a powerful tool for teacher-reflection in that it enables the teacher to more effectively see their practice while Trucano (2013) suggests how video can be used to improve teaching and support teachers' peer and self-analysis.Available research on educational applications of video technology is focused on the use of video in teaching secondary school Mathematics (Hiebert & Stigler, 2000;Seago, 2003) or in Biology (Huang & Aloi, 1991) and none in Kiswahili proverbs.Moreover there is no research available that has been conducted on the effects of use of videos to teach Kiswahili proverbs in Kenya.

Effect of video mediated instruction on student motivation to learn
Motivation is the stimulating force that elicits a certain conduct from an organism in order to satisfy the drive or seek a particular goal (Ormrod, 2003).Motivation energizes, directs, and sustains behaviour.It gets students moving, points them in a particular direction or goal, and keeps them going (Brophy, 1997).Ormrod (2003) is of the view that motivation leads to increased effort and energy, increases initiation of and persistence in activities.Motivation cannot be observed directly but can only be inferred from behavior or ability to do (Wachanga, 2002) Oldham ( 2010) opine that motivation influences what classroom material learners pay attention to and how effectively they process, truly understand and consider how they might use it in their own lives.Oldham says that motivation can be induced by physiological drives as well as by events in the external environment.Similarly, intrinsic motivation comes from within the learnerwhen he believes he is pleasing himself -while extrinsic motivation depends on outward forcepraise or reward from somewhere.Students learn more, are more involved in their own learning and development and retain information better from intrinsically motivated activities since they are more rewarding unlike extrinsically motivated activities which are more difficult to sustain (Ormrod, 2003).
To further explain this, Ormrod (2003) states that behavioural characteristics that indicate high motivation are: persistence in a task learnt; choice of challenge; independence from adults and positive display of emotion.As a way forward, educators are called upon to increase their learners' independent motivation by providing learning activities that play to the learners' natural creativity and curiosity (Brophy, 2003).Educators should further turn on the learners' mood by making learning fun and adventurous.This can be achieved through arousal of interest in the subject matter, maintaining curiosity and by using a variety of interesting presentation modes (Ormrod, 2003).These presentation modes should build learners' sense of confidence if they include interesting, unstructured and active play activities (Brophy, 2003).Brophy (1997) explains that motivation is a critical ingredient in society in that a motivated individual easily brings out their best.Teachers, therefore, must effectively plan and execute relevant and interesting instructions in order to maintain student motivation (Oldham, 2010).Oldham further says that for those interesting instructions to increase student motivation, they must value and respond effectively to student learning styles, create a positive educational environment that is conducive to learning and keep the learners actively involved in the learning process.Students' curiosity needs to be stimulated if the learners are given a sense of personal control in the learning programs.The teacher needs to concentrate on the nature of the learning environment if they wish to affect student motivation (Oldham, 2010).By using video images that are attractive and appealing, the teacher will provide quality motivation to the learners of Kiswahili proverbs.

Effect of video mediated instruction on student attitude towards learning
Attitude is defined as evaluations of thoughts, proceedings, things, or people (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007).They state that although attitudes are commonly assenting or negating, sometimes they can also be unclear.Typically, each attitude has affective, behavioural and cognitive components.Attitudes are either affectively, behaviourally, or cognitively-based.The emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object is referred to as the affective component.Similarly, the way one behaves towards an attitude object is referred to as the behavioural component and the cognitive component is the thoughts and beliefs one has about an attitude object (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007).Attitudes form as a result of experience or observation.The ability to compare the actual and anticipated impact that using instructional technology has on learning is an important aspect (Myers, 1999).This is because instruction is geared towards cognitive and attitude change in the learner.Therefore, a very crucial factor in facilitating interpretation of our surroundings, guiding behaviour and organizing experiences in a meaningful way, is understanding attitudes (House & Keely, 1996).The two continue to assert that although measuring attitudes is a complex affair, it is an important construct that must be measured because of its usefulness in predicting behaviour.Similar thoughts that attitudes and beliefs play an important role in predicting human behaviour are held by (Makini, 2014).
Positive learner attitudes are important because they impact learner achievement thus it is important to promote the right attitude among learners (Simonson & Maushak, 1996).This is because: learners must at times acknowledge the reality of certain information; they are likely to remember what they learn, look for new knowledge and be inspired to study, when they develop positive attitudes to the instructional method.The teacher should be aware of the instructional techniques that affect student attitude so that they influence and measure students' attitude in order to learn the situations that impact the learning process.House & Keely (1996) cited in Chemwei et al. (2013) are of the view that a positive student attitude towards the medium of an instructional activity is crucial because there exists a positive correlation between student attitude and student achievement.Educationists must learn to choose tools available to them, learn how to use them for maximum learner outcomes, and in the process transform the learning environment (Kageni, Havice, Isbell, & Smith, 2014).
These tools must be acceptable because in order to execute any instructional technology well, it must be acceptable to the user.Acceptance is influenced to a large extent by the attitude of the user (Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007).Studies show that students respond positively to technology enhanced instructional methods (Laws, 1997) thereby improving performance in examinations (House & Keely, 1996).Continued use of ICT-based teaching and learning tools made students develop a more positive attitude (Makini, 2014)and wanted to prolong the use of the tool, consequently becoming creative and yearning to take charge of the personal learning process (Hiebert & Stigler, 2000).Video-mediated instructions affect attitude by exposing learners to new methods of instruction in order to influence their behaviour towards learning (Simonson & Maushak, 1996).Video images that are attractive and appealing may cause learners to have a positive attitude towards Kiswahili proverbs.

Effect of video mediated instruction on students achievement
Achievement in education is outcomes that include knowledge, skills and attitudes, and are allied to national goals of education and positive contribution in society (Unicef, 2000).Unicef explains that these learner achievement and outcomes are the intentional, expected effects of the educational system.They include what children know (cognitive) and can do (skills), as well as the attitudes and expectations they have for themselves and their societies (Unicef, 2000).Achievement will be described as attainment of instructional goals (Oldham, 2010).Oldham further says that achievement is measured through the feedback that the learners give to the teacher, communicated through assessment tasks.Academic achievement happens in literacyreading and writingand numeracynumber work (Unicef, 2000).This is often considered as the primary purpose of formal education.Achievement is improved if learners are actively involved in the learning process and enhanced if learning goals are related to learners' interests and choices.Although high achievement by students depend on student ability, teacher characteristics and instructional methods play a big role (Unicef, 2000).Therefore, a teacher interested in improving achievement focuses instruction on what has meaning to students, incorporating active learning and communicating high teacher expectation for achievement (Oldham, 2010).It is worth noting that high achievement is influenced by a learner's child's exposure to curriculum using the right media (Unicef, 2000).The right media is usually childcentered and relevant teaching approaches; that helps students build on prior knowledge to develop attitudes, beliefs and cognitive skills; as well as expand their knowledge base (Unicef, 2000).Furthermore, there exists a significant relationship between achievement and quality processes.However, it is important to realize that students achieve highly if they have a positive attitude towards the content and the instructional activity (House & Keely, 1996) as cited in Chemwei, Kiboss, and Cheruiyot (2013).VMI positively affect achievement in that they are interesting and influence learner behavior (Simonson & Maushak, 1996).Video images that are attractive and appealing may affect learner achievement in Kiswahili proverbs' tasks.

Influence of gender of students on the use of VMI in learning
Gender is a notion that refers to the learned roles and responsibilities of women/girls and men/boys that are defined in our families, our societies and our cultures (Frei & Leowinata, 2014).They include the characteristics, aptitudes and behaviours expected of each gender.Because these roles and expectations are learned, they are not biologically predetermined and therefore are not fixed forever.Women and men feel pressured to fit into certain gender roles, act in particular ways and take on explicit gender-based responsibilities (Frei & Leowinata, 2014).For men/boys these messages and cultural norms include: that doing well in school is not important; that being physically dominant or violent is the way to show they are men and that they are powerless if they cannot improve their family's economic situation (Unesco,2014 cited in Frei andLeowinata, 2014).Frei and Leowinata opine that it is important to note that women/girls are depressingly affected by gender-based roles because they have fewer opportunities, lower status, wield less power and influence than men/boys.Gender parity is attainment of equal percentages of women/girls and men/boys in all aspects of life (Unesco, 2014).Gender parity is good because improving gender equality is good for men/boys as well as women/girls because it creates a fairer society (Sida's Gender Equality Team, 2009).As a result, advancement towards gender equality ordinarily requires balancing actions to promote women's empowerment and rights.Therefore, addressing gender issues need not call for same treatment and actions for men/boys and women/girls.Alternatively, it means devising programs, education systems and approaches, in a way that recognize the different requirements, prospects and expectations of women and men (Frei and Leowinata, 2014).Education plays a crucial role in increasing a girl's status within the family and the wider society in terms of sharing resources and power negotiations.Truly, educated men/boys give more weight to the opinions of women/girls in their lives (Plan International, 2012a cited in Frei and Leowinata, 2014).Gender parity in education is a concept achieved when the percentage of boys compared to girls enrolled in the education system is the same as the percentage of boys compared to girls of the same age group in the community, region or country, based on the count of students at the beginning of a school year (Frei & Leowinata, 2014;Unesco, 2009) According to EFA Fast Track Initiative (2010) gender inequality is a cross-cutting issue in every type of educational disadvantage Further research shows that there exists gender inequality in education access.For instance, a Unesco (2003) study shows that world over, in the year 2000 the number of girls for every 100 boys in school was 83 and 93 in 2011.Of the children enrolled in school world over, only 48% were girls.52% of primary school-age children not in school are girls.The numbers in secondary school are not better either.Only 49% of girls are enrolled in secondary school.Of the 71 million secondary school-age children not in school, 48% are girls.In the developing world, one in three girls is married by the age of 18 and one in nine by the time she's 15.Household decisions to send children to school are to a great extent swayed by the socio-economic and cultural contexts in which they find themselves (Unesco, 2003).
The same study shows that boys/men may be assumed to be better at math/ science and technology while girls/women better at speaking and reading (Unesco, 2003).Unesco states that teachers, consciously or unconsciously, falsely communicate that boys are less able to learn language, or that girls are less capable of mathematics and science.Teachers also show through their comments and interactions that: they believe boys are naturally superior to girls; boys perform better than girls and girls should not challenge boys.This leads to the students' loss of self-confidence and interest in such subjects (Unesco, 2003).
To mitigate this, teachers should allow students to raise any issue of difficult and let it be discussed in an all-inclusive classroom (Sida's Gender Equality Team, 2009).SGET suggest that teachers should also be mindful of their own gender biasesassuming how boys and girls should behave.In addition, they should increase encouragement, and provide positive learning experiences to which boys and girls may respond (Sida's Gender Equality Team, 2009).SGET further suggest that the teacher should develop proficiency in a wide range of teaching approaches including active learning and use of technology, to engage girls and boys with varied learning preferences.
A study by the Norwegian Ministry of Children and Equality in 2008 show that new technologies may have a bigger effect on boys than on girls when it comes to effort and time they put into studies and work (Norwegian Ministry of Children and Equality, 2008).NMCE futher shows that boys with access to videogame systems were seen to score lower in reading and writing than other boys.In the same study, teachers have indicated that boys do not pay attention in class, but if they are given a computer, they turn into attentive learners.A study carried out by Chemwei, Koech and Lang'at (2013) indicate that there is no parity in the use of ICT by teachers in schools.Females used ICT equipment rarely in comparison with males.Chemwei et al concluded that female teacher-educators are slightly behind their male counterparts in their levels of ICT integration into instruction.
To mitigate this teachers should when working with technology allow any student to raise an issue they have particular difficult with and let the group brainstorm on how to deal with the issue (Unesco, 2009).This may happen only if teachers are trained to use new technologies; multi-media materials, videos, radio programmes, mobile phones, desktop computers, laptops, tablets and the internet (Ministry of Education, 2006;Teachers' Service Commission, 2013).Finally, the interest boys/men have in using technology should be harnessed to improve their learning (Norwegian Ministry of Children and Equality, 2008).

Conclusion
The literature presented in this section addressed effects of video mediated instructions on student achievement, attitude and motivation.It has also dealt with the question whether there is gender parity in as far as the use of technology and technology in instruction is concerned.